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INTERESTS IN RELATION TO 
INTELLIGENCE 

A STrnV RELATIi . - OHOOL 

I'lTTVnKFV TO TrTKir; \rOTTYATT0N- AS SHOWN- IN THE CHOICES 



BY 




Louise E. Poull, M.A. 



SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS 

FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY 

IN THE FACULTY OF PHILOSOPHY. 

COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY. 



■* 






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•p TABLE OF CONTENTS 

'^ Page 

f- Introduction and Beview of Previous Researches 3 

Niftture and Scope of the Probkm 7 

Outlines and Methods of Investigation 9 

Stability of Children *s Expressions of their Preferences 

f 6r Occupations and Recreations and of their School Plans 19 

i 

Correspondence of Aims and Ideals 23 

Measures of Intelligence 27 

The Pintner Non-Language Scale as a Test of Interest in 

Mechanics 32 

Vocational Interests and School Plans in Relation to Intelli- 
gence Quotients 39 

Conclusions 52 

Bibliography 53 



ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

This research was made possible by the friendly co-operation 
of Miss Loretta M. Rochester, Mr. Harold Peyser and Mr. 
Benjamin B. Greenberg, the principals of the schools involved. 
I wish to express my gratitude to them for their interest and 
assistance, as also to the teachers; to Miss Ellen Mathews and 
Miss Isabel Davenport my assistant examiners, and to Miss 
Thyra Smith and Mr. Victor Moorrees for the final preparation 
for publication. 

Above all, I am indebted to Miss Elizabeth E. Farrell, and to 
Professors R. S. Woodworth, E. L. Thorndike, and W. A. McCall, 
for help in outlining the problem and in application of statistical 
methods. 






[Reprinted from Ungraded. Vol. VII, Nos. 7, 8 and 9, April, May and June, 1932.] 



INTERESTS IN RELATION TO INTELLIGENCE 

A STUDY OF THE RELATION OF THE MENTAL STATUS OF SCHOOL CHIL- 
DREN TO THEIR MOTIVATION AS SHOWN IN THE CHOICES OF SCHOOL 
PLANS AND OCCUPATIONAL PREFERENCES. 

By Louise E. Poull, Ph.D. 

Introduction and Review of Previous Researches 

The study of interests is essential to the study of human na- 
ture. Interest is an important factor in every analysis of mental 
functioning. " My experience is what I agree to attend to. 
Only those items which I notice shape my mind — ^vithout elect- 
ive interest experience is an utter chaos. Interest alone gives 
accent and emphasis, light and shade, background and fore- 
ground — intelligible perspective in a word. It varies in every 
creature but without it the consciousness of every creature 
would be a gray chaotic indiscriminateness impossible for us to 
conceive. "(1)* '^ We may say that three general factors of ad- 
vantage determine the power of any stimulus to attract atten- 
tion. There is the native factor consisting of change, intensity, 
striking quality and form ; there is the factor of habit, dependent 
on past experience; and there is the factor of present interest 
and desire. "(2) Thorndike (3) has further analysed interest 
into '* instinctive likes " and *' readiness " for neurone condi- 
tion. Scientific research on neurone conduction will no doubt 
lead eventually to a fuller understanding of the manner in which 
this readiness is brought about. 

Walseman(4) describes interest as the subjective condition of 

* Figaree refer to ^umbers in the bibliography. 



4 INTERESTS IN RELATION TO INTELLIGENCE 

cognition. Its importance both as a source of energy and as a 
means of conservation of energy is explained by him in analysing 
the nature of interest. It consists of an inner need to pursue its 
object, combined with a joyous exaltation and a feeling of buoy- 
ancy. It contains within itself a constant stimulus to further 
endeavor, positive direction and balanced tension. It provides, 
without expenditure of energy, for the control of moods, desires, 
and passions. 

It remains for the laboratory psychologist to put this im- 
portant element of mental functioning in proper form for scien- 
tific observation ; to get a cross section, so to speak, for anaylsis. 
Folsom(5) expresses the inadequacy of treating character traits 
as general attributes of mind. " . . . . they fail to discriminate 
different situations, and they assume too great generality. . . . 
Lack of concentration may be simply inability to concentrate on 
certain kinds of work." The study of interest, then, becomes, 
in the laboratory, the study of interests, and these can be ob- 
served only in their manifestations. Laboratory psychology is 
concerned with the age at which they appear, their permana- 
nence or transitoriness, their power of motivation, their rela- 
tion to abilities and capacities. 

Folsom(5) endeavored to find the relation of interest to other 
forms of motivation. He classified the motives for vocational 
choices taken from the questionnaire responses of 206 dis- 
tinguished men from ^' W^o's Who " and those of 155 upper 
classmen of a small college. These motives were : 1. Intrinsic in- 
terest; 2. Satisfactions not intrinsic: Advantage, Ambition, and 
Desire for social contacts ; 3. Moral motives : Service and Duty ; 
4. Fitness; 5. Opportunity in the field; 6. Financial, including 
necessity; 7. Influence or tradition; 8. Elimination. " That 
nearly half of the motivation for vocational choice among col- 
lege men is sheer liking or interest for the work seems estab- 
lished. It is evident that this motive plays a much greater part 
in technical and scientific occupations. ' ' 

The influence of the father's occupation on the vocational 
interest of the child was studied by Elizabeth T. Sullivan (6) in 
the San Jose High School in 1918. The Barr Rating Scale for 
Vocations was used in making the comparison. " It will be seen 
that the students choosing a Class 2 vocation have a tendency to 
choose the same in from one to four points below the father. 
Students choosing a Class 3 vocation make a choice ranging from 



INTERESTS IN RELATION TO INTELLIGENCE 5 

one point below that of the father to three points above, while 
those choosing a Class 4 vocation range in choice from two points 
below to two points above that of the father. Fifty per cent, of 
the students choosing a Class 3 vocation make the same choice 
as the father. For the remaining per centages there is a de- 
cided tendency for students to make a choice above that of the 
father. When the student's choice of vocation is below that of 
the father, the choice is always of the lower class vocations. 
.... We may conclude that the father's vocation does not 
inspire the student in the choice of his vocation. On the con- 
trary, it is possible to conclude that the intimate knowledge he 
has of the limitations of his father's vocation make clear to him 
one vocation to be avoided. ' ' Group 1 in this scale is the lowest 
and group 7 the highest. 

Barr(ll) reports the correlation of the intelligence of the child 
according to the Stanford-Binet Scale with the occupational 
rating of the father worked out on 104 cases. The correlation 
was .69 with P. E. .035. 

A study of group differences between public school children 
for various appeals to age and sex is reported by Gertrude Mary 
Kuper.(12) Nine pictures of uniform size and finish were 
chosen to represent nine appeals. She found a sex difference in 
the order of preference. '^ The girls' order was: 1, religion; 2, 
patriotism; 3, children; 4, pathos; 5, animals; 6, sentiment; 7, 
landscape ; 8, the heroic ; 9, action. The last two were decidedly 
lowest in the scale and the first three were quite clearly highest 
for all ages ; but the picture representing these nine curves was 
one of bewildering intersections as the values changed from year 
to year. The boys' order was: 1, religion; 2, patriotism; 3, 
action ; 4, the heroic ; 5, pathos ; 6, animals ; 7, sentiment ; 8, land- 
scape; 9, children. The boys' chart representing the curves for 
these appeals showed greater agreement from year to year." 

The change of attitude from childhood to adolescence is clearly 
outlined in the children's expressions from year to year. "At 
the ages between 11 and 13 the critical spirit made its first ap- 
pearance among the girls. Only at fourteen did it occur in the 

boys' comments At 15, the remarks become more 

laconic .... this age is marked by the first signs 
of hesitation in speaking of pictures of sentiment." 

The indication is that interests are well defined at an early 
age and that it is possible to obtain objective measures of them. 

% 



6 INTERESTS IN RELATION TO INTELLIGENCE 

May (13) emphasizes the need for taking into consideration the 
'* vocational ideals " of children. He defines these ideals as de- 
sires which may become separated from reality on account of the 
apparent hopelessness of their materializing. Expressions of 
these ideals would, according to Dr. May, help us to understand 
the inner drives of the child, his longings to work out capacities 
he feels but does not understand, and in working out which he 
would be rounding out his personality. He believes it possible, 
beginning with the third year of school, to use a definite method, 
and his experiment will, no doubt, throw light on the many dif- 
ficulties of using this method in the future curriculum. 

Kent (14) inquired into the early constructive interests of 72 
talented engineers. " With regard to interest taken in actual 
performance of work during boyhood, the answers affirming such 
interest generally do so with a positiveness and detail which 
marks it as the dominant one of the period. 

At least 79 per cent, did more or less constructive work before 
reaching the age of 17. Fifty-four per cent, did such work as 
proves the possession during boyhood of decidedly exceptional 
constructive ability.*' 

Forty-four per cent, of the whole or four-fifths of this talented 
section did work which indicates that this talent and their tastes 
already possessed a decided bent towards machine construction. 

Thirty per cent, of all built steam engines, thus proving and 
defining in a peculiarly distinct and conclusive way both an al- 
ready developed taste for mechanical engineering as such and 
their possession during boj^hood of very exceptional talent for it. 

In this field, at least, we have evidence that early interest fore- 
shadows future ability.'* 

In 1912 Thorndike made a study of the " Permanence of In- 
terests and their Relation to Abilities. (6) He summarizes his 
results as follows; " I have computed the resemblance between 
interest in the last three years of the elementary school and ca- 
pacity in the college period as a partial measure of the extent to 
which earl}'^ interest could be used as a symptom of adult capac- 
ity. The average for the hundred individuals is a co-efficient of 
correlation or resemblance of .60." He found the co-efficient of 
correlation between the order of ability in the elementary school 
in seven subjects and their order in the college period to be .65. 
Combined elementary and High School ability, correlated with 
college ability by the rank method, gave a co-efficient of .91. In 



« 



i 



INTERESTS IN RELATION TO INTELLIGENCE 7 

1917(7) he reports a similar study resulting in the following 
correlations : 

Elementary school interests with high school interests r = 85 

Elementary school interests with college interests r = 66 

High school interests with college interests r = 79 

Elementary school interests with college ability r = 66 

Order of interest with order of ability in elementary school, high school 

and ooUege r = 89 

He adds the following comment: '* Even if the true resemb- 
lances are ten per cent, below, these facts witness to the im- 
portance of early interest. They are rather stable features of an 
individual's constitution and are symptomatic, either as cause 
or effect, or both, of abilities." 

Nature and Scope of the Problem 
If the interests of children in elementary school subjects are 
symptomatic of college ability what of the interests in occupa- 
tions and in recreational activities? When children are leaving 
the elementary school the practical aspect of interests in occu- 
pation is taken into consideration. Secondary education has 
then been advised for all who are able to put off earning a living, 
and part time education for those who are ambitious enough to 
exchange play-time for education. If interests are potent in 
directing the vital forces can we afford to ignore them during 
the growing years? For many years the subject of elimination 
from high school has been under discussion. Van Denberg(8, p. 
158) informs us that but one of eight high school entrants suc- 
ceeds in graduating ; that from five-sixths to seven-eighths have 
no *' tangible resultant benefits;" that the high schools are being 
crowded with thousands eager for some taste of secondary edu- 
cation among whom are a few who can and will work forward to 
successful graduation under the present sifting process. Yet, 
with these, who can and will, are more, who can but will not be- 
cause our process of selection or sifting is crude and defective ; 
and so we lose this latter, equally good, material through the 
inefficiency of our present methods of selection." 

Book (9) draws the following conclusions from his survey of 
the high schools of Indiana : 



<< 



1. That the high schools of the State are not adapting them- 
selves to the inequalities in mental strength shown by their 
pupils as well as they might. 



8 IJiTTERESTS IN RELATION TO INTELLIGENCE 

*' 2. That high schools as at present organized and conducted 
seem to be better adapted to the interests and needs of the girls 
than the boys. The girls are more rapidly and consistently ad- 
vanced by the schools, notwithstanding the fact that the boys 
make better records on our mental tests. This suggests that the 
high school is either better adapted to the interests and needs of 
the girls, or that the girls possess characteristics other than gen- 
eral intelligence important for school success not possessed by 

the boys " 

These considerations seem to point to the probability that the 
causes of elimination should be sought farther back in school life. 
Though the study of elimination from the grades may be basal 
to any high school inquiry the problem is actually a larger one, 
namely, the motivation of school children. The question is not 
only why high schools lose so many students by the way but also, 
who of the elementary school population goes to high school? 
Who goes to work without further school plans and who is plan- 
ning for part time secondary education? What are their special 
interests and in what degree are these interests related to intelli- 
gence? A\liat is the relation not only between intelligence and 
school plans, but also between interest and failure to fit into the 
existing school organization. 

The causes of truancy are vitally related to the interests and 
intelligence of school children. Before we had compulsory school 
laws, natural selection was allowed to operate. Children who 
could not comply with the minimum standards could leave school 
and go to work. But under the compulsory school law the child 
who can qualify for seventh grade is allowed to go to work; the 
one who has not the capacity for work in the sixth grade is 
obliged to attend school until he is sixteen years old. These 
children are not necessarily mental defectives. But they are 
caught as in a vise between an inflexible law, an inflexible curri- 
culum and their own mental limitations. They are denied the 
only development that is possible for them, namely, vocational 
training in accordance with their mental capacities and interests. 
There are children who submit to these repressions. Others 
express their protest in defiant behavior and truancy. Truants 
are considered by society as juvenile delinquents, parents of 
truants are fined, and anti-social life attitudes take root. A 
group of 608 unselected truants taken from the Bureau of At- 
tendance of New York City (15) were ranged according to their 



INTERESTS IN RELATION TO INTELLIGENCE 9 

intelligence quotients and were found to have a median I. Q. of 
84.6. Only 15 per cent, of this group were above the normal 
median. A similar study of 30 truants who are also delinquents 
on other counts was made in 1918 by the Department of Research 
of Whittier State School, California. The findings showed the 
same median I. Q. and distribution as the New York City study. 
When allowance is made for other factors of truancy the fact 
remains that the large majority of truants are children whose 
natural capacities and interests are ignored by the present school 
organization. 

The problem is too comprehensive to be solved by intelligence 
tests alone. An I. Q. is an average and has all the limitations of 
averages. Two persons with identical I. Q.'s may react in op- 
posite ways to the same stimulus. The general intelligence fur- 
nishes the minimum requirement for these reactions but the type 
of reaction is conditioned by temperament, by individual (16) 
likes and dislikes. Quoting James once more: " We never make 
an effort to attend to an object except for the sake of some re- 
mote interest which the effort will serve." No one feels more 
keenly than the examiner who makes mental tests how sterile is 
this field unless the special capacities, the drives of the indi- 
vidual are taken into account. In individual testing, the labora- 
tory psychologist gives the subject every opportunity to show 
what is the dominating influence in his life. Without interfer- 
ing in any way with standardized measures or standardized 
methods of procedure it is possible to bring out instinctive likes 
and dislikes; the types of tests in which a certain zest is dis- 
played, the obvious effort in others; success without apparent 
effort in some, failure in spite of effort in others ; spontaneous 
expressions, and supplementary interviews concerning occupa- 
tions and recreations, difficulties in adjustment to environment, 
all serve to bring into relief the distinguishing characterists of 
a personality. 

In planning the present investigation, effort was made to 
adapt the method of the individual examination as far as pos- 
sible to the group examination. 

Outlines and Methods of Investigation 
The purpose of this investigation was to find the relation be- 
tween general intelligence and children's expressions of their 
interests in occupations and of their plans for secondary educa- 



10 INTERESTS IN RELATION TO INTELLIGENCE 

tion. The main requirements were: valid intelligence tests, 
spontaneous expressions of preferences, and an unselected 
group of children of sufficient number to secure statistical re- 
liability. 

The three public schools whose populations were the subjects 
of this study, are located in the same school district of Manhat- 
tan. This district is a working man's neighborhood, as is proved 
by the records of the occupations of the parents. There are only 
a few cases of professional workers or owners of small shops. 
We may then assume an equal social status for the group. Pub- 
lic School No. 3, the school for girls, has a larger population 
than No. 11, the school for boys. To avoid a marked inequality 
between the number of boys and girls, the 6a class of Public 
School No. 95, a school for boys, was included. This equalized 
the numbers and as a 6a class may be regarded as the most rep- 
resentative cross section of a school population, the selection 
brings in no debatable factor. It is owing to the differences in 
actual attendance from day to day that the totals of responses 
to the different tests vary. No effort was made to fill in the gaps 
caused by absence. The total number of subjects is approxi- 
mately 1,206 ; 658 girls and 548 boys. 

The investigation was limited to classes 5b to 8b inclusive. 
The limitations at the lower end is somewhat arbitrary, but we 
may say, in a general way that in grades below the fifth, the 
child's mind is so busy adjusting itself to the growing situations 
of the elementary school that it cannot plan beyond. However, 
an extension of the study of interests in the lower grades would 
be desirable. 

To obtain valid intelligence ratings for so large a group, care- 
ful planning was necessary. It is not assumed that any group 
method can replace individual examinations in the study of per- 
sonalities. The plan was rather to see whether, by means of the 
group method, an approach could be made to an adequate study 
of a school population. National Intelligence Test A and B, 
Form 1, were chosen as a basis but it was decided to supplement 
these by a non-language scale in order to compensate for the low 
ratings which might result from language difficulties. As year 
norms were available, the Pintner Non-Language Scale was 
chosen, the Kelly-Trabue Completion Alpha was added to give 
additional scope for expression and the Pintner Educational 
Scale to give an objective measure of school attainment to be 




INTERESTS IN RELATION TO INTELLIGENCE 



11 



used especially in problem cases. Obviously, the composite 
rating obtained from the results of four tests, necessitating 
several visits to each class, is a more reliable indication of in- 
telligence than is the rating of a single test. A detailed account 
of the testing and of the weights used in the composite is given 
in a later chapter. 

To obviate the difficulties arising from a limited time for re- 
sponse, spelling difficulties of backward children, and also to 
equalize somewhat the differences in life experience, lists of oc- 
cupations and of recreations were presented from which they 
were asked to make three choices. Samples of the question- 
naires are given below. The children were instructed to read 
them carefully before selecting, and to add any occupation or 
recreation which they preferred if that occupation or recreation 
were not included in the list. A third questionnaire, also shown 
below, concerns the family and plans for secondary education. 

Write your name here 



"Write your address here. No Street. 

Which of these would you like best to do ? Mark it 1. 
Which of these would you like next best to do ? Mark it 2. 
Which of these would you like next best to do 1 Mark it 3. 



Actor 


Electrician 


Nurse 


Architect 


Engineer 


Office work 


Artist 


Engraver 


Office helper 


Author 


Errand-boy 


Painter 


Automobile mechanic 


Factory worker 


Photographer 


Banker 


Farmer 


Plumber's helper 


Barber 


Fireman 


Policeman 


Bell-boy 


Forester 


Printer 


Blacksmith 


Gardener 


Printer's helper 


Bookkeeper 


Housekeeper 


Priest 


Bricklayer 


Insurance 


Professor 


Business 


Janitor 


Salesman 


Butcher 


.Tudge 


Secretary 


Car-conductor 


Laborer -i 


Shipbuilder 


Carpenter 


Librarian 


Stenographer 


Chauffeur 


Lawyer 


Taking care of a home 


Clerk 


Mechanic 


Teacher 


Cook 


Mechanic's helper 


Teamster 


Dentist 


Milliner 


Telegrapher 


Doctor 


Miner 


Telephone operator 


Draftsman 


Minister 


Typist 


Dressmaker 


Motor-man 


Waiter 


Elevate rman 


Musician 


Worker in laundry 



12 



INTERESTS IN RELATION TO INTELLIGENCE 



Write your name here 

Write your address here. No Street , 



Which of these do you like best for a good time? Mark it 1. 
Which of these do you like next best for a good time ? Mark it 2. 
Which of these do you like next best for a good timef Mark it 3. 



Acting 

Airplanes 

Animal stories 

Automobile driving 

Bicycle riding 

Bird stories 

Boat riding 

Bowling 

Boxing 

Candymaking 

Card games 

Carving 

Climbing trees 

Collecting bird's eggs 

Collecting bugs 

Collecting coins 

Collecting marbles 

Collecting shells 

Collecting stamps 

Concerts 

Dancing 

Debates 

Detective stories 

Dice 

Dolls 

Dominoea 

Drama 

Drawing 

Eating candy 

Embroidery 

Taney dancing 

Fishing 

Gardening 

Games of chance 

Going to circus 



Gj-mnasium 

Handball 

Holding meetings 

Horse back riding 

Horse races 

Hunting 

Ice cream parlor 

Jackstones 

Jewelry 

Kites 

Kodak 

Listening to music 

Machinery 

Masquerades 

Mechanical toys 

Modeling 

Visiting 

Mountain climbing 

Movies 

Museums 

Novels 

Opera 

Ouija 

Painting 

Picture galaries 

Picnics 

Playing baseball 

Playing basketball 

Playing house 

Playing Indian 

Playing chess 

Playing checkers 

J'lajing doctor 

Playing robber 

Playing school 



Placing with babies 

Playing posi; office 

Playing volley ball 

Reading stories 

Beading poetry 

Ring games 

Rope jumping 

Rowing 

Shopping 

Singing games 

Sculpture 

Spinning tops 

Sewing 

Skating 

Singing 

Sliding 

Sledding 

Sleighing 

Swimming 

Swinging 

Tableaus 

Target shooting 

Tea parties 

Tennis 

Train rides 

Walking 

Watching ball games 

Wild flowers 

Wrestling 

Writing stories 

Writing letters 

Writing poetry 

Vaudeville 

Victrola 



Write your name here 

Write the number of your school here 

Where do you live? No Street 

How old are you? When was your last birthday? 



INTERESTS IN RELATION TO INTELLIGENCE 13 

In what country were you born ? 

In what country was your father born? 

In what country was your mother born! 

What is your father's trade or business? 

"What is your mother's trade or business ? 

Write here the names of your brothers and sisters. Write ages 

here. 



Do you expect to go to High School? 

If you do go to High School, do you expect to go to a Commercial 

High School? 

If you do go to High School, do you expect to go to a Manual 

Training High School? , . . 

If you do go to High School, do you expect to go to an Academic 

High School? 

Do you expect to go to Night School? 

Write its address her. No Street 

Do you expect to be in school next year? 

Do you expect to go to work? " 

Do you expect to go to Vocational School? 

Write its address here. No Street 

Do you expect to go to Continuation School? 

What do you expect to do for a living at first? 

What do you expect to do for a living later? 



14 INTERESTS IN RELATION TO INTELLIGENCE 

The data, then, comprise the mental age and intelligence 
quotient according to the four scales, a complete rating derived 
from the combined results of these scales, the educational rating, 
the first, second and third choices of occupations and of recrea- 
tions, the plan for secondary education and for life occupation, 
the occupation of the father and mother, the order of birth, the 
number of siblings, the place of birth of the child and of the 
father and mother. 

To discover whether there is any stability in children's ex- 
pressions of their preferences, individuals of small groups 
were interviewed, using the subject-matter of the questionnaire. 
In another group the questionnaire was presented a second time 
after an interval of six months. The results of these checks de- 
termined the foundation upon which the conclusions are based. 
Questions such as, ^* Which of the three choices is most stable?" 
** What percentage of secondary school plans persist after six 
months? " **Are choices of recreations and choices of occupa- 
tions equally stable ? ' ' were answered. 

The results of the intelligence tests have been worked out and 
shown in curves of distribution for each of the scales in order 
to compare language with non-language scales ; the correlations 
between these scales have been found. The influence of foreign 
birth and parentage on the results of the Language Comple- 
tion Scale is shown by plotting curves of distribution for a 
group of American born children of American born parents ac- 
cording to the Kelley-Trabue Language Completion Alpha, and 
the National Intelligence Tests. 

The groups planning for High School, for part time second- 
ary education, and for work only, were distributed according to 
their intelligence quotients. The curves of these show to what 
extent a child's plans for High School are conditioned by his 
degree of intelligence. 

Children's expressions of interest as taken from question- 
naire data were compared with their composite intelligence rat- 
ings. The occupations were divided into the following general 
groups: skilled trades, mechanics, clerical workers, and profes- 
sions. This grouping was made necessary by the small numbers 
in the single occupation. The four groups were then distributed 
according to intelligence quotients and compared with similar 
groups taken from the army ratings. This comparison gives 



INTERESTS IN RELATION TO INTELLIGENCE 15 

roughly the relation of children's aspirations to life opportuni- 
ties. 

Occupational preferences were also tabulated against life 
prospects, of which the evidence was the answers to the ques- 
tions concerning the occupation by which the child expects to 
make a living. This comparison is discussed under the caption 
** Correspondence of Aims and Ideals," and yields an interest- 
ing result. 

The records of a group of children who expressed * * mechani- 
cal " interests were used to study the significance of success in 
the Pintner Non-Language Scale. 

The results of the entire investigation yield these findings : 

The large range of intelligence in any occupation or group of 
similar occupations proves that interests are more potent than 
general intelligence in determining the direction of efforts 
towards particular fields of work. It indicates the need for 
studying the special drives and capacities during the growing 
years. Incidental to this is the finding that children's choices 
during these years are sufficiently stable to be used as guides in 
directing developmental activities. 

The large percentage of children who plan to go to high school 
lacking sufficient mentality for the required academic work, and 
also the significant percentage of high grade children who plan 
for part time secondary education or for work only, indicates 
the need for scholarships and for more comprehensive voca- 
tional training to provide for all degrees of intelligence. The 
low degree of correspondence between aims and ideals empha- 
sizes this point. 

Comparison of the different types of scales indicates that the 
non-language scale selects children who have a special interest 
in mechanics. The ratings according to the Kelly-Trabue Lan- 
guage Completion Scale as compared with the ratings of other 
scales indicate that it is necessary to discount the results of a 
scale which is highly conditioned by the use of language when 
given to children of foreign birth or parentage. 

A feasible system is given by which any school can keep a 
record of the child's ambitions and dispositions together with a 
record of the home background. 

Suggestions for further researches are as follows : 

1. An investigation of the stability of children's interests in 
grades below 5b. 



16 INTERESTS IN RELATION TO INTELLIGENCE 

2. A study of individual tests composing the non-language 
scale, to discover which team of tests furnishes the most reliable 
indication of mechanical interests. 

3. A correlation of success in different scales with actual 
ability in industrial work. 

4. An intensive study of a small group, covering a number of 
years, to determine the relation of interest to actual ability. 

Table showing responses to the questionnaire on occupa- 
tions :* 

Choices for boys Choices for girls 

l8t 2nd 3rd 1st 2nd 3rd 

Actor 35 27 16 89 26 36 

Architect 3 6 9 4 10 4 

Artist 18 19 7 45 28 29 

Author 5 1 3 7 5 8 

Automobile mechanic 105 49 29 1 1 S 

Banker 8 15 16 1 2 3 

Barber 1 

Bell boy 2 2 3 

Blacksmith 4 2 1 

Book-keeper 5 12 4 38 18 26 

Bricklayer 1 1 

Business 19 18 9 4 7 

Butcher 5 2 1 2 

Car-conductor 1 5 3 1 1 

Carpenter 18 25 26 

Chauffeur 25 46 36 4 3 6 

Clerk 1 3 6 2 8 4 

Cook 1 6 6 13 

Dentist 1 3 

Doctor 38 12 15 3 3 

Draftsman 5 6 4 1 

Dressmaker 1 1 200 63 49 

Elevator-man 1 3 

Electrician ..40 36 28 1 

Engineer 70 40 36 

Engraver 1 2 

Errand-boy 17 6 17 

Factory-worker 2 1 3 8 23 13 

Farmer 3 9 17 8 

Fireman 13 11 10 

Forester 6. 6 8 

Gardener 1 1 2 2 5 

Housekeeper 3 8 11 

Insurance 2 4 3 



* The total of these tables vary since some of the children omitted to mark first, 
aecond or third choices. Occupations following "worker in laundry" were in- 
serted by the children after they had read the lists. 



INTERESTS IN RELATION TO INTELLIGENCE 17 

Choices for boys Choices for girls 

1st 2nd 3rd lei 2nd 3rd 

Janitor o 

J«dge 2 6 5 

Laborer 1 2 

Librarian i 2 

I^wy^r 17 28 13 

Mechanic 24 g2 45 

Mechanic 's helper 3 ig 4 

Milliner j 

Miner 2 4 

Minister 

Musician 14 jl 17 

Motor-man 5 jq 

Nurse 

OfBce-work 14 n 9 

Office-helper 3 j 

Painter 1 2 5 

Photographer 1 1 j 

Plumber 's helper 1 4 3 

Policeman 6 7 jq 

Printer 5 5 9 

Printer 's helper 1 3 1 

Priest g 3 2 

Prof easor 2 3 2 

Salesman 3 4 jg 

Secretary 2 1 9 

Shipbuilder 1 g jq 

Stenographer 2 3 8 

Care of home 2 

Teacher 1 1 4 

Teamster. g 4 9 

Telegrapher 7 1 7 

Telephone operator 2 2 4 

Typist 1 5 10 

Waiter 1 

Worker in laundry 

Sister 

Embroidery 

Tailor 1 2 

Poet 

Florist 

Designer 2 

Singer 

Draper 

Wrestler 1 

Missionary 

Candy-maker 

Beader 

Truck driver. 1 

Ball player 1 2 

Detective 2 1 3 

Eeal estate 1 



3 


21 


15 


5 


7 


11 
2 


13 


39 

1 


28 

1 


12 


20 


12 


19 


51 


43 


6 


14 


17 


1 


4 


3 





3 


1 




2 


5 


1 


1 




1 


1 


3 





1 




1 




1 




3 


1 


20 


38 


28 


65 


77 


81 


16 


18 


22 


51 


57 


70 
1 


17 


23 


33 


22 


32 


39 


3 


2 
2 


3 


1 






4 




3 
1 


1 








1 


1 


3 


3 






1 


1 




1 




1 


1 


3 




1 


1 


1 






1 


1 





18 



INTERESTS IN RELATION TO INTELLIGENCE 



Table showing responses to the questionnaire on occupa- 
tions (cont.) : 



Choices for boys 
1st 2iid 3rd 



Foreman 2 

Watchmaker 1 

Druggist 1 

Reporter 2 

Jockey 

Accountant 1 

Delegate 1 

Longshoreman 1 

Furrier 2 

Gowpuncher 1 

Adventurer 

Sailor 4 

Scientist 1 

Vice Pres. of U. S 

Jeweller 1 

Aviator 

Pres. of Co 

Camper 

Soldier 1 

Chemist 2 

Beef handler 

Steam fitter 

Cashier 

Grocery boy 1 

Broker 2 

Secret service police 

Poultry raising 1 

Pres. of U. S 

Explorer 

Wireless operator 2 

Eaiitter 1 

Office boy 

Hunter 

Prize fighter 

Radio operator. 1 

Athlete 

Auctioneer 

Pliunber 

Welder 1 

Texas ranger 

Letter carrier 1 

Bank messenger 

Help mother 1 

Scientific explorer 1 



Choices for girls 
l3t 2Qd 3rd 



1 
2 



Totals 614 



579 



580 



677 655 



661 



" 



interests in relation to intelligence 19 

Stability of Children 's Expressions of Their Preferences for 
Occupations and Kecreations and of Their School Plans 

Do the child's expressions of his preferences and plans indi- 
cate an interest of sufficient persistence to warrant the assump- 
tion that we have in them clues to the sources of his spontane- 
ous energy and power! May we count on them as constant 
forces ? 

Two methods were adopted to determine the value of the 
questionnaire as it was used in this investigation. 

The first was tried out a month after the questionnaire had 
been submitted to the girls of Public School No. 3. This was 
also shortly before the mid-year graduation. Forty girls, com 
prising the graduating class, were interviewed by Miss Jen- 
nings of the Vocational and Employment Service for Juniors. 

These interviews were conducted individually and the sub- 
jects were aware of the fact that their statements would be used 
either for placement in industry or placement in secondary 
school courses leading eventually to professional or industrial 
careers. Their statements were regularly entered on the cards 
of the Vocational and Employment Service for Juniors. It was 
found on comparing the results of these interviews with the 
questionnaire of the previous month that in only two cases of 
the forty had there been a new preference expressed. It should 
be noted that in introducing the questionnaire no special men- 
tion was made of plans for vocational guidance but that the 
natural tendency of a graduating class is probably to adopt a 
forward-looking attitude. Miss Jennings had not seen the re- 
sults of the questionnaire before the interviews and her work 
was therefore free from any suggestion which might have been 
caused by her knowing the child's previous expression. In the 
comparison of results, first, second, and third choices were 
treated as of equal value and only the introduction of a new 
element was taken into consideration. 

In consideration of the fact that these children probably were 
predisposed toward stability of expression owing to the near- 
ness of an approaching change, and also in order to find out 
what value, if any, could be placed upon the expressions of the 
children in the grades below the eighth, the second method was 
devised. The 6-A class was chosen as a representative group 
and the questionnaires were re-submitted in May, 1921, after an 



■■ 



20 



INTERESTS IN RELATION TO INTELLIGENCE 



interval of six months. No discussion had taken place during 
this interval and the teachers had not seen the results of the 
first questionnaire at this time. Thirty-eight children re- 
sponded to the questionnaire on school plans and recreations, 
and thirty-six of these to the one on occupations. 

In analysing the results it was found that there were four 
possibilities for each choice of occupations or recreations. First 
choice, for instance, could remain unchanged or changed to sec- 
ond or third choice or disappear, a new choice being substi- 
tuted. Choices of allied occupations, as for instance a change 
from " typewriting " to *' office work " were treated as identi- 
cal choices. 

Choices expressed December, 1920, checked May, 1921: 



Occupations 
First choice 

Unchanged 

Changed to eeoond. 

Changed to third. . . 

Changed to new. . . , 



16 
5 
3 

12 



% 

44.41 
13.9J.66. 
18. sj 
33.3 



Total. 



36 100.0 



Occupations 
Second choice 
Unchanged. 
Changed to 
Changed to 
Changed to 

Total. . . 



first. . 
third, 
new. , 



9 

4 

11 

12 



% 
25. 
11.1 
30.6 
33.3'3 



166.7 



36 100.00 



Occupations 






Third choice 




% 


Unchanged 


5 


13.91 


Changed to first 


4 


11.1 


Changed to second... 


3 


8.3J 


Changed to new 


24 


66.7 


Total 


. 36 


100.0 



% 

Choices showing persistence as unchanged or changed in order only . 60 56 
New choices 48 44 



Total 108 100 



Secreations 








Becreations 






First choice 




% 


Second choice 




% 


Unchanged 


9 


23.7] 




Unchanged 


.. 10 


26.3] 


Changed to second . . 


3 


7.9 


139.50 


Changed to first. . 


.. 6 


15.81 


Changed to third. . . 


3 


7.9 




Changed to third. . 


.. 4 


10.5 


Changed to new.... 


23 


60.5 




Changed to new. . . 


.. 18 


47.4 



152.6 



Total. 



38 100.0 



Total 38 100.0 



INTERESTS IN RELATION TO INTELLIGENCE 



21 



Secreations 

Third choice % 

Unchangod 9 23.7^ 

Changed to first 3 7.9 

Changed to second ... 2 5.3 

Changed to new 24 63. l' 



36.9 



Total. 



38 100.0 



% 
Choices showing persistence as unchanged or changed in order ony. 49 43 
New choices. 65 57 



Total 114 100 

School Plans 



Unchanged 


22 


70 
58 


Become doubtful. . . . 


9 


24 


Changed 


7 


18 



Total. 



I • • • • I 



38 100 



In order to determine the validity of the order of placements 
of choices or, in other words, to check the relative value of first 
choice versus second or third, the order of comparison was re- 
versed and the choice of occupations expressed in May, 1921, 
was checked by the one expressed in December, 1920. 

Choices expressed May, 1921, checked December, 1920: 



Occupations 






Occupations 








First choice 


% 


Second choice 




% 


Unchanged. . . 


16 14.4] 




Unchanged 


10 


27.8") 


Changed from second. 5 13.9 


l69 


4 Changed from first. . 


. 4 


11. ll 


Changed from 


third.. 4 11.1 




Changed from third. . 


3 


8.3 


Changed from 


new.. 11 30.6 


- 


Changed from new. . . 
Total 


19 


52.8 


Total 


36 100.0 


36 


100.0 




Occupations 










Third choice 


% 








Unchanged. . . 


4 11.11 










Changed from 


first. . . 3 8.3 


150.0 








Changed from 


second. 11 30.6 










Changed from 
Total . . . 


new.. 18 50.0 


- 








36 100.0 





l47. 



% 

Choices unchanged or changed in order only 60 56 

New choices 48 44 

Total 108 100 



22 



INTERESTS IN RELATION TO INTELLIGENCE 



Becreations 
First choice 

Unchanged 

Changed to second. 

Changed to third . . . 

Changed to new. . . . 



8 

6 

4 

20 



Total. 



38 



Becrcations 
% Second choice 

21.0] Unchanged. . . . 

15.8 (.47.4 Changed to first. 

10.6 Changed to third. 

52.6 Changed to new. 

Total 



% 

10 26.3 

2 5.3 

4 10.5 

22 58.0 



.42.0 



38 



Becreations 
Third choice 

Unchanged. 

Changed to 



first. 



Changed to second . 



8 
3 
4 



Changed to new 23 



Total. 



38 



% 
21.0 

7.9 
10.5 
60.5 



39.4 



Choices unchanged or changed in order only. 
New choices 



49 
65 



% 

43 

57 



Total 114 100 



Inspection of these results shows a marked difference in per- 
sistence of choices of occupations and school plans against 
choices of recreations; and also in the value of the first and 
second choice of occupations against third choices. The first 
choice of occupations shows 66.7 per cent, of persistent choices, 
the second 66.7 per cent., and the third 33.3 per cent., giving the 
first and second choices a marked advantage. In checking back- 
wards the first choice shows 69.4 per cent, of persistent choices, 
the second 47.2 per cent., and the third 50 per cent. The con- 
clusion seems to be justified that tlie first choice as expressed 
by the questionnaire used in this investigation is an indication 
of a persistence of interest sufficient for the needs of a group 
investigation. In the actual placement of children it would be 
advisable to leave the arrangements flexible enough for a 
change at the end of a term. The method could be used ad- 
vantageously as a first approach to the subject of vocational 
orientation and the fact that this degree of reliability is found 
in the first half of the sixth grade, in a spontaneous reaction, 
without the stimulation of previous discussion or preparation 
for the response, seems to indicate that at this stage of develop- 
ment, if not earlier, the child mind is in a receptive state for 
information, discussion, and actual experimentation in the field 
of vocational enterprise. 



INTERESTS IN RELATION TO INTELLIGENCE 23 

This positive finding is emphasized by the contrasting result 
of the questionnaire on recreational preferences. Here we find 
39.5 per cent, of persistent first choices, 52.6 per cent, of per- 
sistent second choices and 36.9 per cent, of persistent third 
choices; and in checking backwards 47.4 per cent, persistent 
first choices, 42 per cent, of persistent second choices, and 39.4 
per cent, of persistent third choices. It was therefore decided 
that the child's attitude of mind toward recreations is not 
stable enough to obtain significant expressions by the present 
method. 

The results were foreshadowed by the difference in behavior 
in the class rooms during the presentation of the two question- 
naires. ** Occupations " and '' School Plans " called forth a 
serious mood. The prevalent questions were as to the mean- 
ings of words : as to whether ' ' what father wants me to do " 
should figure in the response; whether it was permissible to 
choose something that was not on the list. 

When " Recreations " was presented there was, on the con- 
trary, a prevailing atmosphere of relaxation with occasional 
outbursts of hilaritj'^ and protests against being restricted to 
only three choices. It is significant, also, that only one child of 
the group showed no persistent choice in occupations while 
fourteen showed no persistent choice of recreations. The value 
of the records lies in individual case study, as a persistent 
choice of recreations in the face of such general instability 
would indicate a notable characteristic. Undoubtedly the out- 
line of a personality is incomplete without a knowledge of the 
favorite recreation. 

The following study of the distributions according to the in- 
telligence quotient of children who express interest in the dif- 
ferent occupations is founded on the first of their three choices 
since this choice is on the whole a more reliable measure. 

Correspondence of Aims and Ideals 
The questionnaire sheet concerning the family history and 
school plans of the children contains these questions: '* What 
do you expect to do for a living at first?" ** What do you ex- 
pect to do for a living later ! ' ' Taking the twelve-year-olds as 
a fair sampling of the entire group, the occupational prefer- 
ences were tabulated against the life prospects as expressed by 
the answers to the questions quoted above. The number of 



24 INTERESTS IN RELATION TO INTELXilGENCE 

twelve-year-olds who responded to both questions was 311, 151 
boys and 160 girls. Each of the three preferences was consid- 
ered separately in relation to intelligence quotient and to repe- 
tition in either of the answers to the questions concerning life 
prospects. Discrepancies between the answers to the first and 
second of these questions were recorded as indications of neces- 
sary deferment of the fulfillment of an ambition. Answers to 
the first question which might be considered in any way as step- 
ping-stones to the second were not recorded as discrepancies. 
Record was also made of the number of cases where the ques- 
tions concerning life prospects were left doubtful by either a 
question mark or a vague reply. 

There is evidently no relation between the intelligence quot- 
ient and any one of the problems as outlined. All the distribu- 
tions according to I. Q. show a normal curve and central tend- 
ency similar to the distribution of the unselected twelve-year- 
olds. There is, however, a great difference between the corres- 
pondence of each of the three preferences with life prospects. 

Peecentage of Repetitions 





Boys 


Girls 


Total 


First choice 


40.4 


48.1 


45.0 


Second choice 


12.6 


19.3 


16.0 


Third choice 


6.6 


6.9 


6.7 



Percentage op Discrepancies Between First and Second Life Prospect 
Boys 6% Girls 17% Total 11.6% 

Percentages op Vague and Doubtful Life Prospects 
Boys 13.2% Girls 21% Total 17% 

After due allowance has been made for instability of chil- 
dren's expressions, it still remains clear that a large percent- 
age of children see no connection between the *' thing you like 
best to do " and the occupation which is to take up the bulk of 
working hours in adult life. 

The smaU percentage of discrepancies between the first and 
second life prospect, together with the small percentage of 
vague and doubtful replies shows that children have a definite 
idea of their life chances or of what they believe to be the limits 
of their prospects. Since work, in order to be successful, must 
have a degree of the quality of absorbing play, should not na- 
tive interest select the life occupation in order that the * ' stimu- 



INTERESTS IN RELATION TO INTELLIGENCE 25 

Ins to constant endeavor, the joyous exaltation and the feeling 
of buoyancy " which are inherent in interest shall function to 
prevent drudgery in daily work. If records could be kept not 
only of the school progress of children but also of the mental 
ratings according to different types of scales of the child's am- 
bitions and tendencies together with a home record to show the 
probability of his being able to realize his ideals, many discipli- 
nary problems could be forestalled. Not only would mental 
capacity rather than chronological age determine the rate of 
learning expected from a student but the type of work making 
the strongest appeal to his instinctive likes and through which 
the natural energy is released would be used as a guide in plan- 
ning educational courses. Qualitative differentiation in the 
curriculum would then begin wherever maladjustments begin, 
instead or originating at an arbitrary point known as element- 
ary school graduation. Unit courses in grades above the fourth 
and perhaps lower, as well as in high schools, might offer such 
a solution. A few cases are taken from the records of the sur- 
vey to illustrate this point. These individual records, although 
taken from the group survey, have been verified so that they 
are free from any unreliability resulting from group methods. 

Case No. 1. M. F. Age 14 yrs. 7 mo. Grade 8-B. Mental 
age, composite rating 15 yrs. 5 mo. I. Q. 106. Born in the U. S. 
of Italian parents. Second in order of birth in a family of 8 
children. Father, a manufacturer of perfumery; mother, 
housewife. School attainment, Pintner Educational Scale, is 
15 yrs. 2y2, mos. Educational Quotient 104. Accomplishment 
Quotient 98. 

This girl's first choice in occupations is to be an artist and 
her first choice in recreations is visiting picture galleries. Her 
second choice is the occupation of stenographer. She expects 
to work as an office girl at first and later to become a ** crochet 
header." She expects to go to work without further school 
plans. 

It is evident that we have here a discrepancy between aims 
and ideals; that plans for the future hold no opportunity for 
developing possible artistic talent or general background in ac- 
cordance with her mental capacity. 

Case No. 2. E. Z. Age 15 yrs. 6 mo. Grade 8-B. Mental 
age, composite rating 11 yrs. 5 mo. I. Q. 82. Born in Russia. 
Third in order of birth in family of 6 children ; father, harness 



26 INTERESTS IN RELATION TO INTELLIGENCE 

business; mother, housekeeper. School attainment, Pintner 
Educational Scale, 13 yrs. Educational Quotient 87. Accomp- 
lishment quotient 106. First choice of occupations, musician; 
second, secretary. First choice of recreations, dancing ; second, 
embroidery. She is undecided as to what she will do for a 
living and has no plans for further education but is going to 
school next year. 

This is obviously a case for vocational guidance, for deter- 
mining the presence or absence of a special talent which may 
compensate for the lower mental capacity. Her rating on the 
non-language scale is lower than on the language scales, which 
indicates that her low rating is not due to foreign birth. 

Case No. 3. L. T. Age 12 yrs. 8 mo. Grade 8-B. Mental 
age, composite rating, 17 yrs. 11 mo. I. Q. 141. The ratings on 
language and non-language scales are equally high. Born in 
the U. S. of Italian parents. Father, salesman in a fruit 
market ; mother, housewife. First in order of birth in a family 
of two children. School attainment, Pintner Educational Scale. 
16 yrs. 6 mo. Educational Quotient 130. Accomplishment Quot- 
ient 92. 

First choice of occupations, stenography ; second, taking care 
of home ; third, librarian. First choice of recreations, listening 
to music; second, drawing; third, writing stories and poetry. 
She expects to go to commercial high school. 

As wiU be seen in a later chapter, the recreational choices 
have been discarded as unreliable for generalizations. But 
they are quoted in this case to show that although the limita- 
tions of home environment have probabl)'^ prevented a high 
grade mind from realizing its own possibilities the spontaneous 
enjoyments give testimony of its higher capacity. 

This case w^as reported to the Bureau of '* Vocational Guid- 
ance for Juniors. ' ' The parents have given consent for a change 
from commercial high school to a classical course and special 
attention aa411 be paid to her advancement and further plans. 

Case No. 4. J. M. Age 15 yrs. 8 mo. Grade 8-B. Mental age, 
composite rating 10 yrs. 9 mo. I. Q. 72. Born in the U. S. of 
Italian parents. Third in order of birth in a family of five 
children. Father, presser; mother, housewife. School attain- 
ment, Pintner Educational Scale, 11 yrs. 11 mo. Educational 
Quotient 79.5. Accomplishment Quotient 110. 



INTERESTS IN RELATION TO INTELLIGENCE 27 

First choice of occupations, dressmaking ; second, taking care 
of home. First choice of recreations, auto-driving; second, 
listening to music. 

She expects to go to work and vocational school. The rating 
on the non-language scale is lower than that of the language 
scales, which indicates that the low mental rating is not caused 
by foreign birth. 

On investigation it was found that this girl had always been 
considered as a problem case; too high grade to be classified 
with mental defectives, too unstable to be allowed to go to work. 
She had come to the 8th grade through the industrial classes. 

The case is cited as one requiring special courses and not 
having the capacity for the academic work above 5th grade. 

The data of these case studies are taken from the regular 
questionnaire forms and kept in abbreviated form on individ- 
ual record cards 4x6 in. in size. The method is not prohibitive 
in either time or space requirements and apart from the giving 
of the tests the work can be done by clerks. 

Measures of Intelligence 

For the study of so large a group, individual examinations 
were prohibitive. It was necessary, therefore, to select from 
available group scales a team of tests approximating as nearly 
as possible the results of careful individual examinations. 
Since the comparisons were to be founded on mental age and 
intelligence quotient it was further necessary to use the group 
tests for which age standards had been worked out. In order 
to avoid unduly disturbing the school routine and creating the 
atmosphere of excitement and nervous tension so fatal to the 
validity of mental records, the tests were given in the class 
rooms and the work of any session did not exceed the time limit 
of a departmental period; that is, forty minutes, including all 
the accessory activities such as introduction, and collection of 
papers. 

The mental ratings of the boys of Public School No. 11 were 
taken from the records of the survey made by Dr. L. S. Holling- 
worth and her students. This survey consisted of the Pintner 
Survey Tests generously checked by individual examinations 
on the Stanford-Binet. 



28 INTERESTS IN RELATION TO INTELLIGENCE 

The scales used for the 840 girls of Public School No. 3, Man- 
hattan, and for the group of 200 boys of the 6-A class of Public 
School No. 95, Manhattan, were Scales A and B, Form 1, of the 
National Intelligence Tests (17) Pintner Non-Language Scale, 
and Kelley-Trabue Language Completion Alpha (19). The 
total time given to the tests of intelligence was approximately 
two hours. 

The results were formed into the following composite : 

National Intelligence Tests, Form 1, Scales A and B 

combined weight 4. 

Pintner Non-Language Scale weight 2. 

Kelley-Trabue Language Completion, Alpha weight 1. 

The weights given to each scale were determined by the time 
required for the test. The lesser weight given to the Language 
Completion Scale was also due in part to the fact that the 
school population is largely of Italian birth or descent and that 
a language test is therefore of lesser value. As will be seen on 
inspection of the curves of distribution the median mental age 
of the group was, in fact, according to this scale, one year below 
the median mental age of the group according to the other 
scales. In forming the composite this discrepancy was rectified 
by adding one year to the mental age of each record on this 
scale. 

The norms used in computing the mental age according to the 
National Intelligence Tests were those found by Terman in the 
Vallejo Survey (20) for the Pintner Non-Language Scale and 
the Kelley-Trabue Alpha, the norms published by the authors. 
Interpolations were worked out by months. For the higher levels 
beyond the fifteenth year in the National Intelligence Tests, 
extra-polations were worked out by taking the average incre- 
ment of the two preceding years as the probable increment of 
the next year. This increment was then divided by twelve for 
the increment per month. In the Pintner Non-Language Scale, 
and Kelley-Trabue, estimations were unnecessary since the 
norms are worked out for the upper levels. 

Chart 1 shows the total distribution according to the three 
types of scales: National Intelligence Tests A and B, Form 1; 
Kelley-Trabue Language Completion Alpha, and the Pintner 



INTERESTS IN RELATION TO INTELLIGENCE 



29 



Menial fl^e 
Unilrs of 6% 

IntreKi^ence 
a* b. 



To rex I Disfrlburion. CHART. I 



*4» 





I^R C 7 T ? "io Tt Ji »5 «f ^ ^5 7^ 7f ?^ 
% I H-L /fo 22.6 Ziyif lit kcj i.s X4f f-t, z .Lf. 



Kettej-Tfebwe 



2S 



% 



/Otf 









Y Q '<» " '^ ""'i '*f "^^ '^ ^7 ^ ^ 

•y /ii a/7 »/.f 'M ^f ^* ^'i ^^ '7 7 ^ 



H.fl. c 7 



a^-*?,. 



RntWer Non-|aiijoafc.',f.;': 



a- 1 



71-/. 

13-//. 



ILi--. 



T- 



Hfl U 7 T <} '** « >^ O 'V 'JT /t »^ /T i<j 

To. I i-^ *-•** 5-2 /y/ «3 '<t //-v- 5-7 73 4<f if 9 y 



Non-Language Scale. The total number of cases for each of 
these was respectively : 824, 857, and 878. The frequencies are 
given in percentages in order to equalize the surfaces of distri- 
bution. Units of 5 per cent, are represented by each square of 
one-fourth inch. For purposes of comparison the base-lines 



30 INTERESTS IN RELATION TO INTELLIGENCE 

showing the mental ages are placed so that the mental ages of 
the three coincide. 

As may be seen by inspection of the charts, the distribution 
according to the National Intelligence and Pintner Non-Lan- 
guage Scales show a marked similarity. The median mental 
age, the 25 percentile and the 75 percentile differ by less than 
half a year. At the lower end of the curve of the National In- 
telligence Tests there is an abrupt stop at the ninth year of 
mental age. Only one child of 824 who took these tests had a 
mental age below 9 years. In consideration of the fact that the 
survey covered only grades 5-B to 8-B and that the ungraded 
classes were not included, we may infer that the National In- 
telligence Tests in this combined form are an efficient measure 
for identiying the amount of retardation at present used for 
placement in ungraded classes from these grades. The curve 
of the Pintner Non-Language Scale, on the contrary, extends 
downward to 6 j'^ears mental age. At the upper end of the curve 
the discrepancies between the three scales are slight. Children 
of high I. Q., that is, above 110 according to the National Intelli- 
gence Tests, evidently overcome their language handicaps suf- 
ficiently to rate equally as a group on the two scales. 

The inter-relations of the findings of the three scales is made 
clearer by their correlations. Equal distribution does not indi- 
cate equal meaning. A group of people may be equally dis- 
tributed on a scale of honesty, and on another for physical 
beauty, and have a zero correlation in the two traits. A normal 
curve merely indicates that the measure is valid and the group 
probably unselected. It is the correlation which designates the 
comparative agreement in the traits which are the factors mak- 
ing for success in the tests used. 

Correlations have been worked out between the Pintner Non- 
Language Scale and the National Intelligence Tests with the 

XV 

following results. The Pearson Product Moment (r = ■ ■^■^ — 

^ ^ N 6x6jr 

was the method used in all the correlations found in this investi- 
gation. 

620 girls Chronological Age 10 — 16 Grade 5B — SB r 51 P. E. = .02 
188 boys Chronological Age 10 — 15 Grade 6A — r 31 P. E. = .04 
106 girls Chronological Age 10 — 16 Grade 6A — r 25 P. E. = .06 

Effort was made to determine the effect of foreign birth on 
the results of the language completion scale. It was found that 



INTERESTS IN RELATION TO INTELLIGENCE 



31 



American oorn Cnildi'eii of Amencon Born mrents. 
103 cases. Unihs of 3. 



Test's . 




t\M. q lo II TTiiiiJi iF TC r| Tr 
^ ,. >,. 15 27 27 '/ ^ -^ ^ ' 



rtn 






^-%i KeJU^' Tr-abue. 




2:;i 3 J4 /P 19 ^ " i'^ ^ 5 ^ ^ 



of those who had been tested by both scales there were 103 who 
were American born children of American born parents. The 
records of these children were distributed according to the I. Q. 
on the National Intelligence Tests A and B combined, and also 



32 INTERESTS IN RELATION TO INTELLIGENCE 

on the Kelley-Trabue Completion Alpha. The results are 
shown on Chart 2. The mental ages, represented by the base 
lines are drawn parallel. The frequencies are represented in 
units of 3 to each square of one-fourth inch. Comparison of 
these distributions with those of Chart 1 emphasizes their sig- 
nificance. It will be seen that although the median mental age 
of the entire group as shown on Chart 1 is 11 years 3 months, 
according to the Language Completion Scale in contrast to 12 
years 1 month on the Non-Language Scale, and 12 years 2^ 
months on the National Intelligence Scale, the group of Ameri- 
can born children of American born parents has a median men- 
til age of 12 years 10 months on the Language Completion 
Scale, in agreement with 13 years months on the National In- 
telligence Tests. The greater variability found in the distribu- 
tion according to the scores in Language Completion Scale, 
made by children who represent the second generation in 
America may be due to the continued use of the Italian Lan- 
guage in some of the homes. 

The Pintner Non-Language Scale as a Test of Interest in 

Mechanics 

The low correlation of the Pintner Non-Language Scale, 
where the language factor has been eliminated, with the com- 
bined National Intelligence Tests leads to the question of what 
traits are measured by the former. 

Is there any homogeneous group which shows a marked dif- 
ference in distribution on the two scales ? Are there any mental 
activities called into play by the non-language scale which do 
not function so largely in tests in which language is the medium 
for response? Conceding that the mind works as a whole in 
each mental act, is there not a difference between the mind set 
required for response to arithmetical reasoning and naming 
opposites and that required in form-naming tests, or learning 
by substitution of symbols, following directions given, using 
dots and showing steps in movement with a pointer, and com- 
pleting similar drawings in inverted positions'? Even in tests 
of associative power such as sentence completion and picture 
completion, is there not more of eye hand co-ordination and 
visualization required in the latter and more abstraction in the 
former? Equally, in occupations such as for example drafts- 



INTERESTS IN RELATION TO INTELLIGENCE 33 

man, civil <2ngineer, architect, do not the same powers of visuali- 
zation and eye hand co-ordination make for success, in contrast 
to the needs of lawyers or bookkeepers, and others ? Is it not in 
accordance with known facts concerning individual differences 
to suppose that some thought circuits include the ocular nerves 
and the nerves of the hand while others find greater readiness 
in the cerebral areas? The end product may be of equal value 
but the type of output will be essentially different. 

The questionnaire method used in this investigation offers a 
group of 104 children who expressed a preference for occupa- 
tions in which manual ability and visualization are assumed to 
be prerequisite. This choice was expressed as a first or second 
choice, third choice being discarded as too unreliable for the 
purpose of indicating a definite trend. The group was composed 
as follows: 

Preference in occupation No. of cases 

CSvil Engineer 2 

Electrician 8 

Auto Mechanic 38 

Engineer 5 

Mechanic 18 

Carpenter 9 

Blacksmith 1 

Embroiderer 4 

Shipbuilder 1 

Gardener 4 

Architect H 

Printer 3 

Total 104 



The chronological age of the group shows a distribution from 
10 years 2 months to 15 years 9 months, the median being 12 
years 5 months, the 25 percentile, 11 years 9 months, 75 per- 
centile, 13 years 6 months. The group is therefore not selected 
for chronological age since the median chronological age of the 
entire group is 12 years 11 months, 25 percentile 12 years 1 
month, and 75 percentile 13 years 11 months. 

Graphs A. and B. of chart 3 show the distributions of this 
group according to I. Q., on the National Intelligence Tests and 
the Pintner Non-Language Scale. The medians, 25 percentiles, 
75 percentiles, and semi-interquartile range, are : 



34 INTERESTS IN RELATION TO INTELLIGENCE 

National Intelligence Pintner Non-Language 

Test I. Q. Scale I. Q. 

25 percentile 83 91 

Median 91 99 

75 percentile 97 113.5 

Q 7.2 11.07 

Bange 65 to 119 (one out- 55 to 150 

standing 140) 

The children who express interest in mechanical occupations 
make higher scores on the Pintner Non-Language Scale. The 
median mental age according to this scale is higher than the 75 
percentile of the same group according to the National Intelli- 
gence Tests, and the percentile according to the former is equal 
the median according to the latter. 

In order to investigate still further, a selection was made 
from this group of 104 children, of those who both in first and 
second choices expressed interest in the occupations listed 
above. This second group consisted of 32 children. The dif- 
ferences shown by the preceding group are here accentuated. 
The 25 percentile according to the Pintner Non-Language Scale 
is slightly higher than the 75 percentile according to the Na- 
tional Intelligence Tests. These distributions are shouTi by 
graphs c and d of chart 3. 

National Intelligence Pintner Non-Language 

Test I. Q. Scale I. Q. 

25 percentile 84.7 . 94.9 

Median 88 . 7 104 . 5 

75 Percentile 94 124.6 

Q 4.7 14.84 

Bange 65 to 1 09 80 to 149 

As a check upon these results, a third group was selected, con- 
sisting of those whose choices in occupations, recreations or life 
plans, contained no indication of interest along mechanical lines. 
This group numbered 185. The distributions are shown in 
graphs e and f, chart 4. Here we find that the median I. Q. 
according to the National Intelligence Tests is about 7 points 
higher than the median I. Q. according to the Pintner Non-Lan- 
guage Scale. The 25 percentile of the National Intelligence 
Tests is about 8 points higher than that of the Pintner Non- 
Language Scale. The 75 percentile of the National Intelligence 



INTERESTS IN RELATION TO INTELLIGENCE 



35 



l^^^eres^ in (bechances. 
Unix's or 2. 

I^*" or 1*^ choice. <n 
a ) Total loi^. 

Q= -ft. 



J 



/■ <?y- 



CHART. 3 



t^aVionat lutclli^cc. Wats 



V* -f? 



6* -S^ i<7 -*« 70 - 7^ 70 - f^ 90 - q<j loo -i»<f He ~ u<j 1x0 -ila /J« -uq L, -,»^ ISO -'AG /io' 



t> Interesl" m (Mechanics, 
i**" or T."^ c*^oice . 
Tohil loiv. 
^ - II 7. 



9L 



99 




rn_ 






/a^s-f Mon - [air^^ua^e Scale. 




ii*-«fO O"o-yf to--6V y-^f ro-TQ 'iO~'f9ICio-fcO llo-tia I2o-ticjldo-/iqiua -/««/«& -tfc /t 
/' / :> 3 5 6^ /9 /4 i. 5' //3 ^ if 7 4- 2. / 2/ Z 



7 4- 



^) Inrcresh m l>Oecha»iics ft 7 



I and Z choices 
ToVqI 32.. 



JZL 







U>-4/^ 5'o-yofco-4c Yo- 7^ fo- ?<^ <70'9^ lt>c-lo<» liO'iiQ lifi-ti^ tio-iSo lUti-iQif /So-iSt^ He 
I Z 5 (f ^ ij- ^ I 



^) Ihl'eresis in l^ecban 
'^ aai 2"* choices. 



ICS. 



•y^f 






Noh-[QnJuQ^e Scale 



I 1 



HO 



(#9,5«-»"y 4o-fc^ JO - yo ?«-Io f«-9<7 lOa-Hxf iio-UQ /lo -tl^ *io-ii6 /u» - "^ '•** - «^ *<o 



7 



36 



INTERESTS IN RELATION TO INTELLIGENCE 









CHAPxl.4: . 



tQ 



jzi 



4^- i^(f . So-so .bo- b<f.yo- yQ- ?o- 'S<j.<jo-<fq.ioo-io<f. ito- in. /zo-uo- /3o-/Jo. 'v«-'<«9. 'j^-to. 



*5:^ 



f) 



mechqinits. 
To\-a\ ITS. 



[~T— 



«3 g" Non- \on^uadc Scale 



Q = 15 o5. 



"zg 



rbQ 



r~i I '-^, , I I I — I r-T 

Ut>-U^ So- so. i>c,'(iq yoyo XO-TQ qa-qq,joo-foq tio. //q. 'io-/Jti tae-iiq.iue-iit.Q m-ixxi (Co 



INTERESTS IN RELATION TO INTELLIGENCE 37 

Tests is, on the contrary, 4 points lower than that of the Pintner 
Non-Language Scale. 

National Intelligence Pintner Non-Language 

Test I. Q. Scale I. Q. 

25 percentile 91.4 82.8 

Median 100.4 93.8 

75 percentile 108.6 112.9 

Q 8.6 15.05 

Bange 60 to 149 10 to 160 

It is significant that the groups shown on chart 3, e and d, are 
composed entirely of boys and that groups a and b, total 104, 
contain only 12 girls. On the contrary groups e and f, chart 4, 
contain only 11 boys. Separate distributions for boys and for 
girls regardless of occupational preferences were therefore 
necessary. They show the following differences: 

NATIONAL INTELLIGENCE TESTS 

Boys Girls Total 

I. Q. L Q. I. Q. 

25 percentile 81.7 87.4 85.8 

Median 90.1 97.0 95.3 

75 percentile 98.0 107.2 105.5 

Q 8.15 9.9 9.85 

Range 60 to 125 60 to 150 60 to 150 

NON-LANGUAGE SCALE 

Boys Girls Total 

LQ. LQ. LQ. 

25 percentile 93.0 81.1 83.2 

Median 101.5 91.6 94.0 

75 percentile 117.8 105.7 108.8 

Q 12.4 12.3 12.8 

Bange 65 to 160 40 to 160 40 to 160 

Since the boys in the preceding tables are taken from class 
6A only, and the girls from grades 5B to 8B, the distributions 
of 6A girls are given separately : 

National Intelligence Pintner Non-Langaage 

Girls 6A Test I. Q. Scale I. Q. 

25 percentile 82.5 66.5 

Median 94.6 84.6 

75 percentile 103.25 96.4 

Q 10.37 14.95 

Bange 60 to 130 45 to 145 

Of this group of 108 girls, only three expressed preferences 
for mechanical occupations as here defined. 
In comparing these distributions we find that the children 



38 INTERESTS IN RELATION TO INTELLIGENCE 

expressing mechanical preferences have approximately the same 
median and variability as all boys, and that the children show- 
ing no mechanical preferences agree in median and variability 
with all girls. On the other hand, all boys with the exception of 
the 11 quoted above showed a mechanical preference in some 
one part of their records. 

The differences between the distributions of boys and girls 
may be stated quantitatively: 31 per cent of girls equal or ex- 
ceed the median of boys on the Non-Language Scale, while 71 
per cent of girls equal or exceed the median of boys on the Na- 
tional Intelligence Tests. As may be seen by reference to the 
respective tables given above, in the total distribution of boys 
and girls the medians according to the two scales are only one 
point apart, although the variability is greater according the 
Non-Language Scale. The composite of these scales forms a 
test of intelligence in which no sex difference is shown. Studies 
of sex differences reported by Thorndike(34) would lead us to 
expect this result of a well-balanced scale of general intelli- 
gence. 

We may conclude, in view of these findings, that there is, on 
the whole, a high degree of correspondence between interest in 
mechanics as here defined and success by the Pintner Non- 
Language Scale; and that this interest in mechanics and this 
correspondence involve the activities preferred by boys. We 
cannot, from the present data, discriminate between sex dif- 
ference and difference of interests. 

All groups show a greater variability according to the Non- 
Language Scale than according to the National Intelligence 
Tests when distributed according to I. Q. These variabilities 
compare with that of the I. Q. according to Stanford-Binet (32, 
page 40) as follow^s : 

Q. Range 

Stanford-Binet 8.65 56-145 

National Intelligence Tests 9.85 60-150 

Non-Language Scale 12.8 40-160 

Variability according to mental age: 

Stanford-Binet (14 yr. group) 13 mos. 

National Intelligence Tests 14.5 mos. 

Non-Language Scale 17.5 mos. 

A greater variability might be expected in a test of special 
ability than a test of general intelligence. A close study of 



INTERESTS IN RELATION TO INTELLIGENCE 



39 



successes in each of the tests composing the Non-Language 
Scale in relation to other tests of the same scale and in relation 
to sex differences \\dll be necessary to assure a definite value in 
outlining occupational prospects. 

An investigation by Miss Thyra Smith into the relation of 
the different scales to success in industrial training is now in 
progress in the psychological laboratory of Children's Hospital, 
Randall's Island. If interest and capacity are as nearly allied 
in industrial as in educational work, we must expect corrobora- 
tion of the present results. Since we have no measure of the 
degree of interest in the data here presented, we are unable to 
find the correlation of single tests of the Non-Language Scale 
to interest in mechanics. This disability will not be present in 
the research above-named since a rating scale will form the 
basis of comparison. 



Vocational Interests and School Plans in Relation to 

Intelligence Quotients 

A low mental capacity does not deter children from entering 
high schools. Studies of elimination show that only a small per- 
centage of entrants remain to graduate, but evidently the striv- 
ing for improvement, the interest in self-advancement, the for- 
ward looking element in human nature is strong enough to carry 
children of actual dull normal and border-line capacity through 
the upper grades of the elementary school for which they have 
only a limited capacity and for the work of which they needs 
must use a maximum effort for a minimum attainment. Further- 
more these interests keep them striving onward through the 
ninth and tenth grades seeing only '*as through a glass darkly" 
the implications of what is going on about them; losing self- 
respect through repeated failures ; acquiring wrong conceptions 
of the relations of effort to attainment; forming pernicious life 
habits in adolescent years. 

The findings here presented have been substantiated by the 
results of tests given to high school freshmen. Nine hundred 
and forty-nine entrants of the Washington Irving High School, 
New York City, January 28, 1921, were given as group test 
Haggerty Delta 11. The distribution was shown to range from 
L Q. 70 to 135 with a median I. Q. of 103.8. Similarly, in 1918, 
Wm. M. Proctor (29) and collaborators examined 107 high 



40 INTERESTS IN RELATION TO INTELLIGENCE 

school freshmen of Palo Alto, California. The Stanford-Binet 
scale was used and these individual examinations yielded re- 
sults ill conformity with the New York findings. The median 
of the group was found to be I. Q. 105.9, the 25 percentile I. Q. 
94.7, and the 75 percentile was 117. 

These findings are in agreement with those of the present 
investigation. Children planning to go to high school have ap- 
proximately the same distribution as those who actually enter. 

The number of children who responded to the questionnaire 
concerning school plans was 1,206. Four hundred and eight or 
33.8 per cent planned to go to high school, 577 or 47.8 per cent 
planned to go to work with part time secondary education, 221 
or 18.3 per cent planned to go to work only. The percentage 
planning to go to high school corresponds roughly to the per- 
centage reported as entering high schools by Strayer in his re- 
port of 318 cities. (21) Comparing the percentages of girls and 
boys respectively we have the following : 





High School 


Part Time 


Work 




No. of Cases % 


No. of Cases % 


No. of Cases % 


Boys. . . . , 


148 27 


306 55.8 


94 17.1 


Girls. 


260 39.5 


271 41 


127 19.2 



Although approximately the same percentage of either sex is 
planning for secondary education in one form or another, the 
number of boys who are forced to do part time work exceeds 
that of girls by nearly 15 per cent. It should be noted that the 
social status prevailing in the three schools included in this 
survey are about equal. 

The distributions and central tendencies of the three groups 
are shown in the following graphs. 

The validity of mental ratings founded on the National In- 
telligence Tests is assumed in the present discussion. The 
correlation with Stanford-Binet as worked out by the authors 
is .93(21); and the validity of classifications according to the 
Stanford-Binet has been established by Terman and his 
co-workers. (22) 

The percentages quoted in the deductions and conclusions 
leave a wide margin for the discussion of the exact I. Q. required 
for high school work. The discussion is not within the scope of 



INTERESTS IN RELATION TO INTELLIGENCE 



41 



School PMs 

Ct^ildren planning to ^o 
fe Hl^K School. 

lif^ cases, boysj 

Frcquencjes arc ^"'«" 
in uniJ's of «o cases. 

2.» 5 



Units of 2PHWi<,„. u,».Y 



__ ... l-_ 

c • I ) J ' 1 

^"'^ / 3 il tl q^ /,2 f^ Z3 7 2 



7d'7,.(ii'Z 



CHftRr. 5 



No 



CWWrcn planning h? go 
To worK wirii pari" hme 
Seconelary educahon. 
271 cases. JirlsW^ 
3o6 cases, bo^sj 



2.- ^'b^ 



25%. TSS. 






Siic Jt ^t I20 /fe3 /^ft (/.y /6 9 3 ' 



£?. Children p(annin<^ fb ^o 

fo vVork or' 
ily cases, gi 



fo wbrk only, 
qif coses, boys) 



tTofol aai. 



J 



;i5%?/.f ^k(/wrJ.ff•4. 



y^;?.?^. 



1 



'Sso 2 '0 ;Lif «z 6(o ^c 15 ^ I 



42 INTERESTS IN RELATION TO INTELLIGENCE' 

this study, but the data might furnish a basis for a follow-up 
study of the children involved. 

It will be seen that the high school does select somewhat from 
the upper end of the curve of distribution. But it is the over- 
lapping of the three curves which is significant. In the present 
organization of the academic high school approximately 50 per 
cent of the children who enter high school are attempting a 
hopeless task. Twenty-five per cent of the part time students, 
and 15 per cent of those going to work have the mental capacity 
for high school graduation. And since, as we have seen, the 
expressions of 6th grade children by the questionnaire method 
are sufficiently stable for drawing general conclusions, plans 
could be made in the elementary school to avoid waste of public 
money and of human energy. Given the learning curve and 
upper mental limits of each child by means of mental tests; 
given also his spontaneous expression of interest ; courses could 
be provided in which the motive forces of the child could be 
used to assure his fullest development. Unit courses such as 
are proving successful in dealing with the high school problem 
would go far to save both teacher and class from futile efforts. 

Future research wall no doubt enable us to evaluate the child's 
desire by means of tests of actual capacity for different types 
of work. But even with such information on hand we must ex- 
pect to find a curve of distribution according to general intelli- 
gence within each group. Two boys may express equal en- 
thusiasm for learning a trade. The one with lower intelligence 
may find his upper limit of development in a type of work 
usually done by apprentices ; the other, of high mentality, may 
pass quickly through the lower stages of the work to the status 
of an expert. But both will be functioning according to best 
advantage, each gaining the natural satisfaction due to the 
working out of the inner drives of his organism. Again, ordi- 
nary life experience teaches us that there is a differentiation of 
interest within each trade, profession, or art. Of two musicians, 
one will get a better response from a stringed instrument, while 
to another inspiration comes through the touch of ivory keys. 

The distribution according to intelligence of men actually 
placed in different occupations is given in the report of the Divi- 
sion of Psychology of the Office of the Surgeon General of the 
U. S. Army. (23) Although the medians of the different groups 



INTERESTS IN RELATION TO INTELLIGENCE 43 

rise gradually from the group whose middle 50 per cent is of 
common laborer in C rating to that of engineer officer in A rat- 
ing, the rise is by almost imperceptible degrees and the over- 
lapping is significant. General electricians, for instance, ranged 
from 1.6% rated D (up to I. Q. 63) to 9.8% rated A (I. Q. 120 or 
over) ; stationary gas enginemen from 2.7% rated D to 2% 
rated A. 

Thorndike comments on the variability of I. Q. within the 
occupational groups of the army: (33) ''No less significant is 
the variability within each occupational group. Taking the 
measurements as they stand, the 75 percentile unskilled laborer 
is up to the level of the median general mechanic, tool room ex- 
pert, or automobile mechanic and up to the level of the 25 per- 
centile mechanical engineer. The 75 percentile railroad clerk 
is at the level of the average accountant or civil engineer. The 
75 percentile receiving or shipping clerk is at the level of the 
25 percentile physician. This variability would be reduced by 
longer and repeated tests, but, unless the test as given has a 
very large probable error, it would still be enormous. It would 
still imply that there were in the occupations supposed to give 
little opportunity for the use of intellect, a very large number 
of gifted men and consequently a large unused surplus of 
intellect." 

These occupations were represented by numbers of men for 
sufficient reliable curves. But in studying the expressed in- 
terests of children in occupations it was found that the number 
of cases in each specific occupation was too small for statistical 
accuracy. It was necessary for purposes of comparison to make 
general classifications. The occupations were therefore divided 
into four groups: skilled trades, mechanics, clerical work, and 
professions. 

These groups were composed as follows : 

Skilled Trades No. of Cases 

Dressmaker 193 

Painter 1 

Candymaker 1 

Gardener 3 

Printer 7 

Car conductor 2 

Policeman 8 

Factory worker 8 

Barber 1 



44 INTERESTS IN RELATION TO INTELLIGENCE 

Skilled Trades No. of Casee 

Shipbuilder 1 

Foreman 2 

Plumber 1 

Embroiderer 4 

Bricklayer 1 

Milliner 13 

Waiter 3 

Butcher 5 

Teamster 6 

Blacksmith. . . 3 

Fireman 11 

Carpenter 18 

Housekeeper 3 

Welder. 1 

Soldier 2 

Sailor 3 

Camera man 1 

Watchmaker 1 

Jeweler 1 

Ball player 1 

Forester 6 

Farmer 4 

Total 315 

Mechanics No. of Cases 

Chauffeur 27 

Electrician 49 

Auto mechanic 92 

Truck-driver 1 

Engineer 41 

Mechanic 23 

Total 232 

Office Work No. of Cases 

Telephone operator 19 

Draftsman 5 

Office work 21 

Telegrapher 5 

Typist 26 

Stenographer 67 

Secretary 20 

Book-keeper 41 . 

Total 204 

Professions No. of Cases 

Artist 68 

Poet 1 

Nurse 21 

Chemist 2 

Detective 2 

Scientific explorer 1 



INTERESTS IN RELATION TO INTELLIGENCE 45 

Professions No. of Cases 

Druggist 2 

Judge 3 

Missionary g 

Doctor 4Q 

Author 2Q 

Librarian j 

Ship 's oflScer 1 

Radio operator 1 

Architect g 

Wireless expert 2 

Lawyer 27 

Dentist 2 

Reporter 2 

Banker g 

Teacher 52 

Musician 26 

Civil engineer g 

Total 300 

It was found that 122 children had marked ''actor" as first 
occupational preference. As this was the first word on the list 
it was suspected that the directions had been misunderstood or 
that these children had followed the path of least resistance in 
marking. This would constitute one factor of unreliability in 
the present method. This group had a range from I. Q. 58 to 
130. The median I. Q. was 96.9, the 25 percentile I. Q. 87, and 
the 75 percentile I. Q. 109, and the curve shows a marked irregu- 
larity. Whatever influenced the choice was not, therefore, neces- 
sarily inferior mentality. 

Twenty children chose common labor, such as errand boy, 
elevator man and longshoreman. These ranged from I. Q. 70 
to 120. There were 29 prospective business men ranging from 
I. Q. 60 to 130, choosing ''real estate," "clerk," "broker" and 
"salesman." Seventeen girls ranging from I. Q. 70 to 120 gave 
"care of home" as first choices. The number of these groups 
is too small for statistical treatment. 

Charts 6 and 7 show the distributions according to intelli- 
gence quotient of the children expressing interest in skilled 
trades, in mechanics, and in clerical work compared to similar 
groups taken from the army records. (23) 

The probable errors of the medians of these distributions 
5 Q 

(4VN) are as follows: 



46 



INTERESTS IN RELATION TO INTELLIGENCE 



SKilUd Trades 
Rrm^ Rotintf 



7t>'^ 



Mik 



CHAKT Id. 



lOh^ 



|.Q. —63 fci^-Y> 7/^- ?6 'i'^-c^^ lOO'fcxf lio-iiq 120 — 
%. SS /if- 3 2.^'; ZCj-^ Its TO I -J 



SKilled Irade^ 

Children's 
Pref, 



<?2-5 



^ tf 



erences 



n 



/o/'2. 



"I 



l.Q. <>o-4)<y 70- yc^ Jj-fg qo-<:^<^ ioo-/<xj /ro-(i^ no-tiq lio-ritf 
% ^■q■^ il-2> '^'f^ 3oq+ /cj.z 7.2 /-i y 

Mechanics 
fir my 



70.3 



/Oi^ 



Vo. 2cj cj 3 zzi 30:/- Z2.V- q--7 3 



MecViQnics 

Children s 
Preferences 



liq 



101^,. J 



q%± 



|.Q.5o-5<j to -6(^70 -7<^ \o- %Cj qo-^c^ioo-icxf to-ii<f i2o~n<j izo-ii^ 
%' ■<! t^ d /3» 25 o <I.o* zy-G 73 '7 '3 



INTERESTS IN RELATION TO INTELLIGENCE 



47 



CUncal VYorK 
Rrmxj Ral'in6 



lU'i 



CHART.7 . 



<7»;V- 



//4 



1 Q — 4.3. t>«f -f5 74 - ft J;-^'^ /o» -'Of U'* -"<? '2o -^ 

V». Oy /-v 5"3 22? 2 f 2JL(, /st> 







*?Y 


^y 


i 


Clencal Work 


HU 




10^. 


Children s 






Prcfcvenccs 








1 J 






1 




1 — , 


, .... 1 



/.(}, SO-S<j Co-C<f yo-f^ JO-fy <^0-<J<jno-IM) no- U<1 l2o-liaJ3o-it^ /UJ)-/uy /Ji) — 

% '5 2 ti ^■'^ If ' 2qi ilS U7 u ij /'*f '-^ '-^ 



Professions 
Rrmy RahnJ 



% 

Professions. 

Children's 
freferences 



/Z3 



nSU 



/oG 



Cy fc«-Y3. YM.-jfc <i'^-ef<j M»-i»^ Ho-ii<j /za 

/ft? / 



•>?r 



_S7 









48 



INTERESTS IN RELATION TO INTELLIGENCE 



Q 

Skilled trades 8.9 

Mechanics 11.1 

Clerical work 9.4 

Prof easions 9.7 



P. E. of median 

.63 
.78 
.82 
.67 



In order to obtain data for the distribution from the army 
ratings, the percentile distributions of the groups composing, 
respectively, skilled trades, mechanics, and clerical workers were 
taken from Table 378, ''Intelligence and Occupation" (p. 828), 
and summarized. The letter ratings of Alpha and Beta com- 
bined were converted into intelligence quotients according to the 
accepted army standard (p. 423). The groups were composed 
as follows: 



Skilled Trades 

Occupation I. Q. 63 64-73 

General blacksmith ... 5.4 13.9 

General carpenter,... 3.3 10.5 

Painter 4.8 12.2' 

Plumber 2.6 9.6 

Locomotive fireman ...3.0 9.0 

Teamster 9.4 19.7 

Butcher 3.1 11.3 

Barber 6.6 18.8 

Horseshoer 7.1 17.5 

Gen. pipe fitter 2.8 7.8 

Bricklayer 9.7 16.4 

Tailor 8.4 25.5 

Mechanics 

Gen. machinist 4.1 10.8 

Gen. electrician 1.6 3.8 

Auto chauffeur 2.3 8.5 

Gen. auto repairman.. 1.9 6.7 
Stationary gas engine- 
man 2.7 10.2 

Tel. and telegraphic 

lineman 2.9 8.0 

Auto engine mechanic. 1.2 2.9 

Gen. boilermaker 5.9 14.4 

Gen. mechanic 4.3 11.6 

Bail road shop me- 
chanic 5.4 16.2 

Tool room expert 6.8 

Locomotive cngineman 1.8 12.7 

Marine engineman. . . . 4.3 8,5 



74-86 


87-99 


100-109 


110-119 


120 or 


20.5 


31.3 


18.8 


8.2 


1.7 


24.1 


31.9 


20.7 


7.6 


1.9 


22.5 


33. 


18.2 


7.7 


1.5 


20.4 


31.9 


23.7 


9.2 


2.6 


21.5 


36.4 


21.1 


7.1 


1,9 


24.9 


27.9 


12.5 


4.3 


1.3 


22.8 


31.8 


21.6 


8.3 


1.1 


26.5 


26.3 


14.9 


6.1 


.8 


25.0 


29.7 


15.1 


5.2 


.5 


23.4 


29.8 


26.1 


7.8 


2.3 


21.3 


25.6 


15.9 


8.2 


2.9 


24.7 


20.9 


14.2 


4.6 


1.7 


22.7 


29.2 


21.2 


9.3 


3.0 


10.4 


28.4 


27.7 


18.2 


9.8 


21.0 


31.3 


22.5 


10.2 


4.1 


21.2 


31.7 


25.1 


10.6 


2.8 



30.7 



30.0 



15.7 



8.5 



2.0 



21.7 


33.9 


20.8 


8.9 


3.8 


20.7 


.35.1 


24.7 


11.5 


4.0 


29.4 


29.4 


11.8 


7.2 


2.0 


16.7 


28.3 


24.6 


14.5 




27.1 


21.6 


18.9 


8.1 


2.7 


20.5 


34.1 


29.5 


6.8 


2.3 


21.8 


32.7 


27.3 


3,6 




25.6 


29.8 


21.3 


8.5 


2.1 



INTERESTS IN RELATION TO INTELLIGENCE 49 

Clerical Work 

Telegrapher 1.2 10.0 29.1 32.2 20.3 7.3 

Bookkeeper 2 .9 4.4 17.9 29.9 28.6 18.1 

Gen. clerk. 3 .9 5.2 19.7 33.6 25.0 15.3 

Stenographer & typist. 1.7 8.7 27.1 34.3 28.1 

Telephone operator.. 1.8 7.3 47.3 23.6 20. 

Filing clerk 3.6 23.6 32.7 23.6 16.4 

Mechanical draftsman. 1.7 8.6 13.8 17.2 34.5 24.1 

Professions 

Engineer officer .4 3.6 16.3 79.6 

Medical officer .88 3.1 18.6 36.8 40.7 

Dental officer 19.0 26.6 36.7 17.7 

Army chaplain 1.5 8.4 24.5 65.5 

Army nurse .2 3.1 17.7 34.4 26.9 17.6 

Civil engineer 1.9 1.9 9.4 18.9 34.0 34.0 

Mechanical engineer.. 8.9 4.4 22.2 17.8 24.4 22.2 

Accountant .5 5.5 26.2 39.1 28.7 

In February, 1921, vocational interests were made the subject 
of interview in Public School No. 11, New York City, by Dr. 
Ruth Clark of the Vocational Guidance and Employment Ser- 
vice for Juniors. (28) The interval since the giving of the group 
questionnaire was nearly a year so that Dr. Clark's results may 
be used as a legitimate check on the first. They furnish ade- 
quate corroboration. Grades 5 to 8 were covered including the 
opportunity classes, and the intelligence quotients are the same 
as those used as a basis for the present study. The findings of 
this investigation are shown in the following table : 

Vocations No. Range of L Q. Av. I. Q. 

Skilled mechanics 143 53-136 90.4 

Professions 77 46-146 100.8 

Office work 35 65-136 93.4 

Business 20 64-142 98.2 

Unskilled labor 14 64-110 81 . 1 

Artistic work 12 67-107 85.5 

Semi-professional 9 71-120 95 . 1 

Physical prowess 6 72-109 86.6 

Machine operator 4 64-92 77.7 

For the group of children planning for professional careers, 
we have no parallel group of adults either in the army ratings 
or in the reports of psychological experimentation. Although 
the curve has been drawn showing the distribution of such pro- 
fessionals as were functioning in their own occupation in the 
army, it is recognized that they are not a representative group. 



50 INTERESTS IN RELATION TO INTELLIGENCE 

Comparison of the lists will show that the children's choices 
covered 24 professions, while only 8 were represented in regular 
work of the army. It is significant, however, that although the 
median of the army professional group is well within the classi- 
fication of superior adult, the lower 25 per cent extends from 
average to border-line and below. Our professional standards 
have evidently been low when individuals of inferior types have 
found it possible to obtain certification. And, although the 
minimum requirements in terms of general intelligence have not 
been determined for the professions listed in the children's 
choices, it is a safe assmnption that nearly 50 per cent must fail 
of their ambition, since a college degree or at least a high school 
diploma is a prerequisite for training. If effort could be made 
to discover what particular element in the profession is the 
determining factor of their choices, this element might be found 
in an occupation within the scope of their mental capacities. Job 
analysis is still in its infancy, but surely its proper sphere 
begins where children's native drives for future life begin to be 
directed into definite grooves. 

The distribution of clerical workers in the army shows a 
median I. Q. of 106+ in contrast to the median I. Q. of 97+ found 
among the children of similar group. It may be that individuals 
were impressed for the clerical work of the army, who in peace 
time were occupied with professional work for which there was 
no call in the army. Of the children expressing interest in 
clerical work, the upper 25 per cent would probably rise to 
higher positions using office work as a stepping stone. 

The groups of mechanics and of skilled trades agree in essen- 
tial points when army ratings and children's choices are com- 
pared. If the army ratings of these groups may be taken as 
representing life opportunity and the children's preferences as 
life aspirations, we may infer that there is no real discrepancy 
between the two, but that there is a place for each one accord- 
ing to his capacity to fill it. It is also obvious that the lower 50 
per cent of these groups comprising nearly 25 per cent of the 
entire group included in this investigation would have a better 
preparation for adult life if their mental limitations were taken 
into account in the elementary school and special courses were 
provided which gave them opportunity for capitalizing their 



INTERESTS IN RELATION TO INTELLIGENCE 51 

mechanical abilities. Cultural subjects need not, thereby, be 
neglected, but might be adapted to the capacity of the group. 

The work involved in mechanics and skilled trades includes 
occupations of every degree of complexity. The range of I. Q.'s 
in these distributions and the normality of the curves is, there- 
fore, in keeping with life opportunities in these fields. In in- 
dustry and in schools for vocational training we sometimes meet 
with an objection against the employment of inferior mentalities 
and high grade defectives, on the plea that they have not the 
capacity for normal advancement. The assumption here is, that 
when these individuals reach the plateau of their learning 
curves, they naturally become discontented. Experience with 
mental defectives does not bear out this assumption. There are 
stable and unstable temperaments in every degree of general 
intelligence. The latter, when combined with mental defects are 
subjects for institutional care. The former are well content in 
occupations which to higher mentalities are blind alley jobs. 
They labor happily and efficiently in routine work in which the 
constant repetition required is galling to more active minds. 
This confusion of temperamental with intellectual qualification 
is the cause of much unwisdom in vocational training and in 
industrial organization. Objective tests for character traits are 
now of special interest in psychological experimentation and 
will presumably meet the need for more intensive character 
study in schools and in industries. 

The experiment conducted by Elizabeth B. Bigelow(25) at 
New Haven, Connecticut, offers proof of the stability of sub- 
normal girls in industry. The success of the parole system as 
worked out by Dr. Bernstein (26) is another instance of extra- 
institutional control. Dr. Gesell(27) suggests adjustment by 
means of more adequate legislation for parole systems. 

Industrial stability in relation to intelligence, on the basis of 
school retardation, used as the only available measure, has been 
studied by W. D. Scott and M. H. S. Hayes. (31, p. 70ff.) They 
considered the expressed desires for change of work of 470 em- 
ployees divided among six departments of a manufacturing 
company. 

When the results for the six departments are plotted in one 
curve, a steady rise in dissatisfaction as retardation grows less 



52 INTERESTS IN RELATION TO INTELLIGENCE 

is shown. When each department is studied separately the re- 
sults are in marked agreement with the degree of intelligence 
required by the different types of work of the departments. For 
instance (31, p. 76) : "In both the foundry and the gear and 
lathe departments, the men who are the most retarded are the 
most satisfied with their work; the men who are least retarded 
are almost equally content. The greatest instability is found 
among those who occupy a middle ground in the matter of re- 
tardation. This curious fact may be understood when it is 
realized that in these two departments there are both very low- 
grade and very high-grade jobs." 

AVorkingmen of high intelligence are as likely to be discon- 
tented as those of low intelligence in situations which do not 
offer scope for the exercise of their capacities. 

Conclusions 

1. Interests are not conditioned by intelligence except in so 
far as intelligence limits comprehension in the fields of interest. 

2. Of the children considered in this investigation, those 
planning to go to high school have a median I. Q. of 101.7 — . 
This indicates that 50 per cent of probable high school entrants 
have not the necessary intelligence to cope with the academic 
requirements for graduation. 

3. Of the children planning for part time secondary educa- 
tion 25 per cent have sufficient intelligence to become high school 
graduates. These cases should be studied with a view to giving 
opportunity to complete the high school course without economic 
handicaps. 

4. Of the children planning to go to work without further 
school training approximately 15 per cent have the mental 
ability to become high school graduates. 

The range and variability are approximately the same for 
the three groups showing the need of differentiation according 
to rate of learning in class work. 

5. The groups of boys planning to go to work without further 
school plans or planning for part time secondary education, 
show a somewhat greater variability than the corresponding 
groups of girls; whereas the group of girls planning to go to 
high school is more variable than the corresponding group of 
boys. 



INTERESTS IN RELATIOIS' TO INTELLIGENCE 53 

6. The percentage of boys going to work or planning for part 
time secondary education is 73 per cent of the total miniber in 
contrast to 60 per cent of the corresponding group of girls. 

7. There is a high degree of correspondence between success 
in the Pintner Non-Language Scale and interest in occupations 
involving manual ability. 

8. Approximately equal numbers of children express interest 
in skilled trades, mechanics, clerical, and professional work. 
Skilled trades and mechanics show similar curves and almost 
equal central tendencies. Prospective clerical workers include 
some of the highest I. Q.'s, and their central tendency is higher 
than that of mechanics or skilled trades. Prospective profes- 
sional workers show a slight advance in central tendency, but 
include children of all degrees from border-line to superior 
adult. The overlapping of the four curves indicates the need 
for work along the lines of vocational orientation and guidance 
beginning in the intermediate grades of the elementary school. 

9. Over half of the children have not learned to associate the 
idea of their favorite occupations with the idea of life work, 
while approximately 70 per cent have definite ideas as to the 
nature of the occupation by which they expect to make a living. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1. Principles of Psychology, James. 

2. Psychology, A Study of the Mental Life, E. S. Woodworth. Henry Holt Oo., 

New York. 

3. Original Nature of Man, Chap. 9, E. L. Thorndike. 

, 4. Walseman, H. : Das Interesse, sein Weson und seine Bedeutung 2. Auflage 1907. 

5. What can the Psychology of Interests, Motives and Character contribute to 

Vocational Guidance? Joseph K. Folsom. The Jr. of Applied Psych. Sept. 
1917. 

6. Permanence of Interests and their Relation to Abilities, E. L. Thorndike. Pop. 

Sci. Mo. 1912, 81, 449-456. 

7. Early Interests: Their Permanence and Relation to Abilities, E. L. Thorndike. 

School and Society, Feb. 10, 1917. 

8. The Causes of Elimination of Students in Public Secondary Schools of New 

York City. J. Van Denburg, Ph.D., 1911. T. C. Publication. 

9. Preliminary Report on the State-Wide Mental Survey of High School Seniors 

of Indiana, William F. Book, 1920. 

10. A Study of Certain Tests and their Significance in the Administration of the 

High School Curriculum, Elizabeth Sullivan, Master's Thesis, Stanford Uni- 
versity. 1918. 

11. A Scale for Measuring Mental Ability in Vocations and some of its Applications, 

Frank Elmer Barr, Stanford University, 1918. 

12. Group Differences in the Interests of Children, Gertrude Mary Kuper. Jr. of 

Phil. 1912. 9, fl6. 



54 INTERESTS IN RELATION TO INTELLIGENCE 

13. Festellung der Berufs ideale und Berufswunsche unserer Volkschulkinder, Von 

Dr. Phil. Albert May in Mannheim Praktische Psychologie 1. Jahrgang 
1920, 9 Heft. 

14. The Constructive Interests of Children, E. B. Kent, A.M. Columbia University, 

1903. 

15. The Mental Status of Truants, L. E. PouU, M.A. Ungraded, October 1919. 

16. Social Psychology, William MacDougall. 

17. National Intelligence Tests. Prepared under the auspices of the National 

Research Council by M. E. Haggerty, L. M. Terman, E. L. Thomdike, G, M. 
Whipple, and P. M. Yerkes, Chairman. 1920. World Book Company, 
Yonkers-on-Hudson, New York. 

18. A Non-Language Group Intelligence Test. By Budolf Pintner, Ohio State 

University. Jr. of Applied Psych., Sept. 1919. 

19. Key for Completion- Test Language Scales. By M. R. Trabue, Teachers College 

Publication, New York City, 1919. 

20. Age and Grade Norms for the National Intelligence Tests Scales A and B, 

Lewis M. Terman and Ethel Whitmere. Leland Stanford University. Journal 
of Educational Research, February 1921. 

21. Age and Grade Census of Schools and Colleges, G. D. Strayer. Bull. No. 451. 

U. S. Bureau of Education. 

22. The Intelligence of School Cliildren, Lewis M. Tei-man. Houghton Mifflin Com- 

pany, 1919. 

23. Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences, Vol. XV. Psychological Ex- 

amining in the United States Army. Edited by Robert M. Yerkes. 

24. Bulletin of the New York Society for Experimental Education, October 1920. 

25. Experiment to determine the possibilities of subnonnal girls in factory work, 

Eizabeth B. Bigclow. Mental Hygiene, April 1921. 

26. Colony and Extra-Institutional Care for the Feebleminded, Charles Bernstein. 

Mental Hygiene, Jan. 1920. 

27. Vocational Probation for Subnormal Youth, Arnold Gesell, Ph.D., M.D. Mental 

Hygiene, April 1921. 

28. Vocational Interests: Unpublished data of the Vocational Guidance? and Em- 

ployment Service for Junior."?. By Ruth S. Clark, Pli.D. New York City. 

29. The Use of Intelligence Tests in Educational Guidance of High School Pupils, 

Wm. M. Proctor. School and Society, Oct. 19 and Oct. 26, 1919. 

30. A Statistical Study of 102 Truants. Willis W. Clark. M.A. Journal of De- 

linquency, Sept. 1918. 

31. Science and Common Sense in Working with Men, W. D. Scott and M. H. S. 

Hayes. New York. The Ronald Pre.ss Co. 1921. 

32. The Stanford Revision and Extension of the Binet-Simon Scale for measuring 

Intelligence, Lewis M. Terman and others. Warwick and York, Baltimore. 
1917. 

33. Scientific Personnel Work in the Army, E. L. Thorndikc. Science. 1919 — 49. 

34. Educational Psychology, Vol. 3. E. L. Thorndike. 

Note: Reprints on sale in the office of the Archives of Psychology, Columbia 
University, New York City. 



\ 



VITA. 

The writer was born November 21, 1876, in Port Wash- 
ington, Wisconsin. She attended elementary and secondary 
schools in Chicago receiving the graduate diploma of St. Bene- 
dict's Academy in 1893: American Conservatory of Music, 
Chicago, Teacher's Certificate for Violin and Theory of Music 
in 1903; Washington State Normal School Ellensburg diploma 
in 1916; Teachers' College, Columbia University, B.S. and 
Diploma of Supervisor of Special Classes in 1917; M.A. and 
Diploma of Psychologist in 1919. 

Her professional experience is as follows: Assistant In- 
structor Department of Psychology, Washington State Normal 
School 1917; Psychological Examiner in the Department of 
Unguarded Classes, New York City 1917-1920; Psychologist 
in charge. Children's Hospital, Randall's Island, New York City 
Civil Service, Department of Welfare 1920. 



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